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  • br Materials and methods br Results br Discussion

    2018-11-07


    Materials and methods
    Results
    Discussion
    Limitations Risk-taking behavior entails a much greater spectrum of behaviors such as sexual risk-taking or traffic related risk-taking. Future studies could focus on a larger spectrum of risk-taking behaviors. Furthermore, the current study used baseline testosterone levels, measured at the beginning of the day. Testosterone levels are known to fluctuate throughout the day and can change rapidly due to environmental influences (Apicella et al., 2014). To assess the relationship between NAcc responses to the gambling task and testosterone levels, future studies could measure testosterone at several occasions around the moment of task administration.
    Conclusion In conclusion, NAcc activation to rewards is positively related to self-report alcohol use. This finding confirms the hypothesized relationship between neural activation to rewards and real-life risk-taking behavior. Even though there was no direct effect of testosterone on alcohol use, testosterone levels were found to be predictive of alcohol use two years later, indicating a more protracted relationship. A crucial question for the future is how testosterone levels influences norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor development, and how the combination of both influences real life risk-taking (Crone and Dahl, 2012). Future studies assessing these relations across multiple times points will be important to unravel these dynamic relations.
    Conflict of interest
    Acknowledgements This work was supported by a European Research Council (ERC) starting grant (ERC-2010-StG-263234) awarded to E.A.C. and by a VENI grant from the Dutch Science Foundation (NWO) awarded to J.S.P (VENI 451-10-007).
    Introduction Disrupted processing of negative affect is one of the most clinically salient characteristics of risk for later internalizing disorders, including depression and anxiety (Wilson et al., 2014; Karevold et al., 2009). Research continues to suggest that understanding early brain behavior relationships may be critical for the identification and prevention of later occurring psychopathology. However, very little is known about the neurobiological correlates of negative affect processing in very young children and whether such correlates can inform individual differences in negative affective reactivity at later time points. A large body of research consistently suggests that the amygdala plays an important role in the processing of emotionally salient information (Pessoa, 2010), and associations between heightened amygdala reactivity and elevated negative affect have been established in multiple study samples (Barch et al., 2012; Peluso et al., 2009; Henderson et al., 2014; Swartz et al., 2015). Nevertheless, very little is known about Housekeeping (constitutive) genes relationship in early childhood and whether amygdala reactivity at this age is predictive of future negative affective behavior. Given the challenges associated with reliably measuring behavioral markers of negative affect at this age using common approaches (e.g., potential for biased parent report, failure to successfully elicit negative responses to lab-based challenges, etc.), the exploration of neural markers of negative affect may hold promise for identifying highly objective and potentially more robust early markers of risk. In addition, understanding the developmental neurobiology of negative affect is likely to clarify our understanding of elevated negative affect as a feature common to many psychiatric conditions and to further inform mechanisms of change in transdiagnostic treatments targeting early development (Insel, 2014). Research examining the relationship between early negative affect and later internalizing psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression, has suggested that elevated negative affect during early childhood is an important marker of risk. For example, at the symptom level, infants rated as ‘fussy’ and ‘difficult to soothe’ by their parents are also more likely to have higher scores on maternal ratings of depression and anxiety at 5 years of age (Cote et al., 2009). Similarly, high negative emotionality scores during the infancy and preschool periods have been associated with elevated parental ratings of anxiety and depression symptoms during later school age and adolescence (Karevold et al., 2009; Dougherty et al., 2011). More recent data suggest a similar phenomenon when diagnostic outcomes are considered. Specifically, elevations in negative affect at 6 years of age have been found to significantly increase the odds of receiving a diagnosis of depression at 18 years old (Bould et al., 2014). Studies investigating early irritability (i.e., easy annoyance and touchiness characterized by anger and temper outbursts) have also suggested a strong link between elevations in negative affect and later psychopathology. Of particular relevance for identifying young children at increased risk for psychopathology, a recent study reported that irritability measured at 3 years of age was predictive of depression and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) diagnoses 3 years later (i.e., 6 years of age) over and above baseline diagnostic status (Dougherty et al., 2013). Further, using measures controlling for item overlap, the authors also found that irritability measured when children were 3 years old predicted increases in dimensional measures of depression, ODD, and functional impairment at 6 years of age.