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    • In summary our findings suggest that in late

    2018-11-13

    In summary, our findings suggest that in late childhood and adolescence, the amPFC and IPL/IPS play a role as integrative regions with high hierarchical positions within the whole-brain network. Furthermore, we showed that disruptions in the hierarchical position of the IPS are associated with psychopathology. These results point towards a model in which psychopathological manifestations are associated with disruptions of the typical functional hierarchy of Tubastatin A HCl networks. Our findings are in agreement with current hypotheses regarding the relationships between mental disorders and abnormal connectomics (Fornito et al., 2015; Satterthwaite and Baker, 2015; Sporns, 2014). Because this study is based on a pediatric sample, this result might be explored as a potential feature that could be used to identify risk factors in children and adolescents. Moreover, our sample is a community sample based on a non-European/North American population from a developing country, for which relatively few studies exist.
    Disclosures and conflict of interest
    Acknowledgements The opinions, hypotheses, conclusions and recommendations of this study are those of the authors and do not necessary represent the opinions of the funding agencies. The authors are grateful to Sao Paulo Research Foundation − FAPESP (J.R.S. grants 2013/10498-6 and 2013/00506-1; A.P.J. grant 2013/08531-5) for funding this research. This is a study from the National Institutes of Science and Technology for Developmental Psychiatry of Children and Adolescents (INPD) supported by CNPq (573974/2008-0 and 442026/2014-5) and FAPESP (2008/57896-8). A.G., A.Z., F.A.P. and G.A.S. receive fellowships from CAPES-Brazil. P.M.P. receives a fellowship from CNPq-Brazil.
    Introduction Language is a fundamental and complex human attribute. During the first months of life, infants approach language with a set of neuropsychological abilities (e.g., Saffran et al., 1996). These include the ability to perform fine-grained acoustic analyses in the tens of milliseconds range (i.e., Rapid Auditory Processing or “RAP”). Studies have shown that RAP is critical to the decoding of the speech stream and the subsequent establishment of phonemic maps (e.g., Aslin, 1989; Benasich and Tallal, 2002; Kuhl, 2004), and RAP plays a crucial role in setting up the building blocks of spoken language (Benasich et al., 2006; Choudhury and Benasich, 2011). For some children, language acquisition is difficult and subsequent language and learning abilities can be impaired. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) and dyslexia are disorders in which language and reading, respectively, are delayed despite normal nonverbal intelligence and adequate educational opportunities. At the behavioral level, phonological deficits have consistently been shown to be a core feature of both disorders (Leonard, 2014; Ramus et al., 2003; Schulte-Körne and Bruder, 2010). However, it is still a matter of long-lasting debate whether such deficits are primarily induced by speech-specific mechanisms or by disturbances in more basic auditory perception such as RAP deficits (e.g., Tallal and Piercy, 1973; Cantiani et al., 2010; Lorusso et al., 2014; Malenfant et al., 2012). Specific Language Impairment and dyslexia are often comorbid and aggregate in families suggesting a genetic etiology (Plomin and Kovas, 2005). Around one third of children diagnosed with SLI in preschool-age go on to develop dyslexia by elementary school (e.g., Catts et al., 2005). In addition, bivariate genetic analyses, which are based on cross-trait correlations in twins’ pairs and assess the proportion of phenotypic covariance attributable to common genetic contributions, have shown that genetic effects on reading strongly correlate with genetic effects on language in twins from the general population (r=.67–1.0) (Hohnen and Stevenson, 1999) and in affected twins (r=.53–.86) (Bishop, 2001), supporting the view that language and reading (dis)abilities share common genes and are not etiologically distinct. For these reasons, the term “language-learning impairment” (LLI) has become increasingly popular and encompasses children with either or both disorders. Given the high heritability of LLI, studying infants of biological families with a greater-than-expected prevalence of LLI, and thus at higher genetic risk, is a valuable approach to identify early markers of the disorder (Luyster et al., 2011).